Poster 1 : « Phage Therapy for Salmonella Control and Gut Health in Ducks: A Sustainable Biotech Approach for Healthier Poultry Production »
Phage Therapy for Salmonella Control and Gut Health in Ducks: A Sustainable Biotech for Healthier Poultry Production
Mingkwan Yingkajorn, Wattana Pelyuntha, Kitiya Vongkamjan
Prince of Songkla University
Abstract
The persistence of Salmonella in the global poultry industry remains a significant threat to public health, food safety, and economic sustainability. While most studies focus on chickens, ducks—widely reared in Southeast Asia and other parts of the world—are also important reservoirs of this zoonotic pathogen. Increasing concerns over antibiotic resistance and microbial imbalances in the gut of poultry have stimulated interest in bacteriophages (phages) as a precision tool for controlling Salmonella without disrupting the microbiota or contributing to antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This review explores the promise of phage therapy in duck production, drawing parallels with recent breakthroughs in broiler systems, and highlighting the potential of phage cocktails as a sustainable, targeted, and environmentally friendly strategy to improve food safety and gut health in waterfowl. Special attention is given to recent commercial-scale data, environmental resilience of phages, and the implications for large-scale implementation.
Introduction
The global poultry industry is under dual pressure: to ensure efficient production and to comply with increasing food safety standards. Among zoonotic pathogens, Salmonella spp. stand out due to their ability to colonize the gastrointestinal tract of birds and contaminate meat and eggs, leading to human salmonellosis. Ducks, like broilers, serve as asymptomatic carriers, shedding Salmonella into the environment and the food chain. In several Southeast Asian regions, duck farming is a traditional yet intensively practiced system, with minimal biosecurity and a high risk of pathogen transmission. In Thailand, for instance, Salmonella prevalence in poultry production systems—especially involving free-range and wetland-reared ducks—can exceed 30% depending on the season and management style.
The control of Salmonella at the pre-harvest level is essential, as post-harvest interventions alone are insufficient to eliminate contamination. Historically, antibiotics have been used to suppress bacterial infections, but their overuse has led to increased AMR and mounting restrictions on their prophylactic use in livestock. Meanwhile, commercial vaccines for Salmonella in ducks are less commonly available or less effective due to antigenic diversity among circulating serovars. These challenges underscore the urgency for safe, targeted alternatives.
Bacteriophages as Precision Antimicrobials
Bacteriophages are viruses that specifically infect bacteria, replicating within and lysing their host. Unlike broad-spectrum antibiotics, phages exhibit high host specificity, meaning they can target pathogens such as Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis or Typhimurium without affecting beneficial commensals in the duck gut. This precision enables them to modulate gut health positively, preserve the microbiota balance, and potentially enhance nutrient absorption and growth performance.
Phages are naturally abundant in the same environments where Salmonella proliferates—water, soil, feces, and food processing facilities—making their isolation and adaptation to duck production systems feasible. Importantly, phages have been granted GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) status by the US FDA, further supporting their use in food animals and processing lines (FDA, 2020).
In poultry, several studies have demonstrated the efficacy of phage cocktails in reducing Salmonella colonization. In a large-scale trial in Thailand, a three-phage cocktail targeting serovars Anatum and Kentucky achieved complete elimination of Salmonella from broiler cloacal swabs after three oral doses of 10⁷ PFU/mL (Pelyuntha et al., 2024). The same cocktail remained viable across a range of environmental stressors relevant to field application, including pH 2–12 (>95% survivability), 0.5–15% NaCl (>98% survivability), and temperatures up to 65 °C (>60% survivability), reflecting robust field readiness.
Translating Broiler Data to Duck Systems
While evidence in broilers is growing, data on phage therapy in ducks remains limited. However, similarities in gastrointestinal physiology and Salmonella colonization dynamics suggest that ducks can benefit from phage-based interventions in comparable ways. The unique challenge with ducks arises from their aquatic environments, which can act as both reservoirs for Salmonella and dispersal agents. Phages isolated from duck-associated water bodies or fecal material may offer a customized biocontrol solution adapted to these conditions.
Trials focusing on phage therapy in waterfowl must address variables such as waterborne transmission, flock density, and environmental persistence. The application could be integrated via drinking water systems or feed additives, offering ease of administration in extensive duck farms. Moreover, stress tolerance and shelf-life data from broiler phage formulations indicate potential for transport and storage under suboptimal field conditions, making implementation in rural duck farms plausible.
Gut Health and Microbiota Modulation
Beyond pathogen control, phages may contribute to improved gut health, a critical determinant of performance in poultry. Recent microbiome studies reveal that Salmonella infection disrupts the balance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes, reduces short-chain fatty acid production, and impairs immune modulation. By removing Salmonella, phage therapy indirectly stabilizes the microbiota and restores gut functionality.
Unlike antibiotics, which suppress both pathogenic and beneficial microbes, phages spare beneficial flora, thereby preserving competitive exclusion and microbial diversity. Some studies in broilers have shown improved feed conversion ratios (FCR) and weight gain following phage administration, suggesting economic as well as health benefits. If validated in ducks, this dual benefit—pathogen reduction and growth promotion—could significantly enhance the appeal of phage therapy to producers.
Safety, Resistance, and Regulatory Perspectives
Phage resistance, like antibiotic resistance, is a consideration in long-term use. However, phages can be rapidly reformulated into cocktails targeting multiple receptors or serovars, thus minimizing escape mutants. Furthermore, the co-evolutionary dynamics between phages and bacteria can be leveraged to maintain efficacy over time. The inclusion of phage receptors with variable binding affinities ensures broader coverage across diverse Salmonella populations in field settings.
Phages have demonstrated safety in poultry, with no adverse effects on hematological parameters, behavior, or organ morphology. Regulatory acceptance is expanding, with phage-based feed additives and sprays already used in some jurisdictions. Their biodegradability and lack of chemical residues also align with green agriculture principles.
Toward Commercialization in Duck Farming
To transition phage therapy from research to commercial practice in duck farming, several steps are needed. First, regional Salmonella serovar surveillance should guide phage selection and cocktail design. Second, formulation must consider water compatibility, shelf stability, and delivery routes. Third, commercial trials under diverse environmental conditions are essential to assess efficacy, economic return, and scalability.
Phage therapy’s compatibility with other interventions—such as probiotics, organic acids, or improved hygiene—can also be explored to develop integrated gut health management systems. Cross-sector collaboration among veterinarians, microbiologists, and duck farmers is crucial to fine-tune dosing regimens, monitor resistance patterns, and ensure biosecurity compliance.
Conclusion
Phage therapy represents a promising and sustainable biotechnology to combat Salmonella colonization and improve gut health in duck production systems. Drawing from compelling evidence in broiler farms, the targeted use of phage cocktails offers a natural, effective, and microbiota-friendly alternative to antibiotics. Ducks, particularly in Southeast Asia, could benefit substantially from tailored phage solutions that account for their aquatic ecology and unique disease dynamics. As food safety regulations tighten and consumer demand for antibiotic-free meat increases, phage therapy is poised to play a critical role in the next generation of poultry health strategies. With further investment in research, regulatory support, and technology transfer, this biotech innovation could redefine disease control in duck farming and safeguard public health.
Funding
This work was supported by the Agricultural Research and Development Agency (ARDA), Thailand (Grant No. CRP6305031030).
Author Contributions
Mingkwan Yingkajorn: Conceptualization, Literature Review, Writing – original draft.
Wattana Pelyuntha: Methodology, Data Interpretation, Writing – review & editing.
Kitiya Vongkamjan: Project Supervision, Validation, Writing – final review.
Declaration of Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing financial interests or personal relationships that could influence this work.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, and the Faculty of Animal Science and Technology, Maejo University, for their support and access to research facilities.
References :
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Pelyuntha, W. et al. (2024). Phage cocktail administration to reduce Salmonella load in broilers. Research in Veterinary Science, 105163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2024.105163
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Moye, Z.D. et al. (2018). Bacteriophage applications for food production and processing. Viruses, 10(4), 205.
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Clavijo, V. et al. (2019). Use of bacteriophage cocktails to reduce Salmonella in poultry production. Poultry Science, 98(3), 1133–1143.
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Khan, F.M., Rahman, M. (2022). Phage therapy for bacterial infections in poultry. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 826832.
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Zuppi, P. et al. (2022). Phage-microbiota interactions: the future of microbiome-targeted therapies. Trends in Microbiology, 30(1), 19–31.
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U.S. Food and Drug Administration (2020). GRAS Notice Inventory. https://www.fda.gov
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Eguale, T. (2018). Antimicrobial resistance in poultry in Africa: a review. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 7, 112.
Poster 10 : Tailored Bacteriophage Cocktails to Combat Salmonella in Poultry: Enhancing Food Safety and Reducing Antibiotic Use
Phage-Based Biocontrol of Salmonella enterica in the Broiler Production Chain: Stability, Efficacy, and Safety of a Broad-Host Range Phage Cocktail
Abstract
Salmonella enterica remains a leading cause of foodborne illness globally, particularly through contaminated poultry products. The increasing emergence of antibiotic-resistant Salmonella strains in the broiler production chain has intensified the demand for alternative antimicrobial strategies. Bacteriophage therapy, especially using lytic phages with broad host range and environmental stability, offers a promising avenue for biocontrol. This study investigates the efficacy, safety, and environmental robustness of a phage cocktail composed of two virulent bacteriophages, WP109 and WP128, against S. enterica strains isolated from various stages of the broiler production continuum. Through a comprehensive evaluation of host range, cytotoxicity, gastrointestinal survivability, and resistance to physicochemical stressors, this work positions the WP109/WP128 cocktail as a viable candidate for pre- and post-harvest applications in poultry safety systems.
Introduction
The poultry industry is a well-documented reservoir for Salmonella enterica, a pathogen responsible for millions of cases of gastroenteritis annually, with severe implications in immunocompromised populations. In 2020 alone, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that contaminated chicken accounted for over 23% of Salmonella outbreaks in the United States, with similar burdens globally. While traditional interventions such as antibiotics, chlorine washes, and vaccination have been applied, escalating antimicrobial resistance and consumer demands for antibiotic-free production systems have accelerated the search for bacteriophage-based alternatives.
Bacteriophages (phages), particularly those exhibiting obligate lytic life cycles, offer host-specific bacterial killing, self-replication in situ, and minimal disruption to beneficial microbiota. However, successful implementation of phage-based interventions in the poultry industry hinges on several critical parameters: broad-spectrum activity across pathogenic serovars, safety in mammalian systems, and resilience under environmental and gastrointestinal conditions.
Methods and Experimental Design
The study employed a two-phage cocktail, combining WP109 and WP128, both previously characterized for lytic behavior against S. enterica. These phages were tested against 78 strains of S. enterica isolated from preharvest (e.g., cloacal swabs, litter, feed) and postharvest (e.g., carcass rinsates, skin) stages of the broiler production process. The isolates included representatives of major pathogenic serovars, including S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium.
Bacterial challenge assays were conducted at multiplicities of infection (MOIs) of 10², 10³, and 10⁴ to determine dose-dependent efficacy over a 24-hour incubation period. Survivability studies of the phage cocktail were conducted under various physicochemical stressors, including a pH range from 2 to 11, temperatures from 4°C to 60°C, chlorine concentrations up to 5%, and commonly used industrial sanitizers (non-ionic, cationic, and anionic classes). Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells were used to evaluate phage cytotoxicity via MTT assays at 24, 48, and 72-hour intervals. Furthermore, simulated gastrointestinal conditions were used to assess oral delivery viability, including exposure to gastric (pH 2, pepsin-containing) and intestinal (pH 8.5, pancreatin-containing) fluids.
Results
Host Range and Lytic Efficacy
The combined WP109/WP128 phage cocktail exhibited robust lytic activity across a wide array of S. enterica isolates. WP109 alone lysed 91.2% of the tested strains, while WP128 lysed 78.2%. These results mirror prior findings by authors such as Nale et al. (2016), who reported 85–92% lytic coverage using well-characterized phages against S. Typhimurium. Importantly, the phage cocktail maintained efficacy across isolates from both pre- and postharvest sources, suggesting stable performance throughout the broiler production continuum.
MOI-based bactericidal assays revealed dose-dependent reductions in Salmonella concentrations. For S. Enteritidis, titers increased to 8.38 log PFU/mL at MOI 10⁴ after 24 hours, compared to 6.89 log PFU/mL at MOI 10². S. Typhimurium showed even greater replication, achieving 9.54 log PFU/mL at MOI 10². These data confirm that higher phage-to-host ratios significantly enhance bacterial clearance and support the strategic use of elevated MOIs in phage-based formulations.
Stability Under Harsh Environmental Conditions
The phage cocktail exhibited remarkable resilience across a variety of environmental stressors. At ambient temperature (25°C), titers remained above 8.5 log PFU/mL after 24 hours. At 45°C, a modest reduction to 7.1 log PFU/mL was observed, while survival at 60°C showed a decrease of approximately 1.5 log units. This thermal tolerance aligns with previous observations by Hudson et al. (2019), who documented similar thermal profiles in phage-based poultry decontamination strategies.
Across the pH spectrum, phage viability remained largely unaffected from pH 4 to 10. At pH 2 and pH 11, slight titer reductions were observed but remained within acceptable efficacy thresholds (>7.5 log PFU/mL). Notably, exposure to chlorine at concentrations up to 1% did not impair phage viability significantly. Even at 2.5% chlorine, over 80% of phage particles remained infectious after 24 hours, suggesting compatibility with standard carcass sanitation protocols. Additionally, the cocktail retained full infectivity in the presence of industrial-grade sanitizers, including quaternary ammonium compounds and non-ionic surfactants, indicating potential for integration into cleaning-in-place (CIP) systems.
Cytotoxicity and Epithelial Compatibility
Phage safety was verified via in vitro cytotoxicity assays using Caco-2 cells. After exposure to phage cocktail concentrations ranging from 5 to 8 log PFU/mL for 24, 48, and 72 hours, no statistically significant reduction in cell viability was observed. Cell viability remained above 95% across all conditions, with no morphological abnormalities detected under phase-contrast microscopy. These results are consistent with previous toxicology studies (e.g., Łusiak-Szelachowska et al., 2021), supporting the assertion that lytic phages targeting Gram-negative pathogens exhibit minimal eukaryotic cytotoxicity.
Survivability Under Simulated Gastrointestinal Conditions
Given the interest in phage administration via feed or water, the survivability of the WP109/WP128 cocktail under gastrointestinal conditions was evaluated. Following a 2-hour incubation in simulated gastric fluid (SGF, pH 2.0, pepsin), the cocktail retained 99.9% of initial infectivity. Subsequent exposure to simulated intestinal fluid (SIF, pH 8.5 with pancreatin and bile salts) further demonstrated negligible titer loss. Final titers exceeded 8.8 log PFU/mL, confirming the cocktail's capacity to remain viable throughout the avian gastrointestinal tract. These findings underscore the cocktail’s potential for prophylactic use in live broilers, with implications for both pathogen reduction and microbiota modulation.
Discussion
The results from this study highlight the WP109/WP128 phage cocktail as a strong candidate for controlling S. enterica across poultry production stages. The high host range coverage ensures broad-spectrum applicability, while the absence of cytotoxicity and its stability under industrial conditions support real-world feasibility. Importantly, the phage cocktail’s ability to survive gastrointestinal transit suggests dual utility: pathogen mitigation in poultry intestines and possible post-harvest interventions during processing.
The findings also raise interesting prospects for the incorporation of phage therapy into hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) frameworks. Unlike chemical sanitizers, phages present minimal toxicity, are self-limiting, and do not contribute to antimicrobial resistance. Their selective nature further preserves commensal microbial communities, a desirable trait in maintaining gut health and immune function in poultry.
Nonetheless, the study has certain limitations. The absence of in vivo trials restricts translational certainty, and serotyping of Salmonella isolates was not comprehensively reported. Future studies should evaluate long-term storage stability, resistance evolution, and phage interaction with host immunity. Additionally, regulatory frameworks for phage use in food production must evolve to support commercial adoption.
Conclusion
This study provides compelling evidence that a two-phage cocktail, WP109/WP128, is both effective and safe for controlling S. enterica in poultry production environments. With its broad host range, high stability across environmental and gastrointestinal stressors, and non-cytotoxic nature, the cocktail holds significant promise for application in preharvest broiler management, postharvest decontamination, and possibly even consumer-level food safety interventions. As regulatory acceptance of phage-based biocontrol grows, this study contributes to the foundational data required for the development of phage-integrated food safety systems.
References :
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2020). Foodborne Diseases Active Surveillance Network (FoodNet): Salmonella Annual Report.
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Nale, J. Y., Redgwell, T. A., Millard, A., Clokie, M. R. J. (2016). Efficacy of a bacteriophage cocktail in reducing Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in vivo. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 1867.
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Hudson, J. A., Billington, C., Carey-Smith, G. V., Greening, G. E. (2019). Use of bacteriophages as a biocontrol method for Salmonella on poultry carcasses. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 214, 129–137.
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Łusiak-Szelachowska, M., Weber-Dąbrowska, B., Żaczek, M., Międzybrodzki, R., Górski, A. (2021). Phage safety issues and approaches to combat phage-resistant bacteria. Viruses, 13(10), 2044.
Bonus Study : 'Bacteriophage Cocktails: A Promising Strategy to Eradicate Listeria monocytogenes Biofilms on Food Contact Surfaces"
Bacteriophage Cocktails as a Promising Strategy to Eradicate Listeria monocytogenes Biofilms on Food Contact Surfaces: Insights and Perspectives
Introduction
Listeria monocytogenes remains one of the most persistent and hazardous foodborne pathogens in modern food production systems. Known for its psychrotrophic capabilities, it survives and even proliferates at refrigeration temperatures, creating significant risks in ready-to-eat and minimally processed foods (Ferreira et al., 2014). The challenge posed by L. monocytogenes is amplified by its ability to form robust biofilms on food contact materials (FCMs), such as stainless steel, polyethylene, and polypropylene—common surfaces in food processing environments (Colagiorgi et al., 2017).
Unlike planktonic cells, biofilm-embedded bacteria are shielded by an extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) matrix that protects them from environmental stressors, chemical sanitizers, and antimicrobial treatments (Flemming & Wingender, 2010). As a result, conventional cleaning and disinfection methods often fall short in fully eliminating these resilient communities, especially in hard-to-reach niches. This persistent contamination contributes to recurring food recalls and outbreaks of listeriosis, a disease with a mortality rate reaching up to 30% in vulnerable populations (Swaminathan & Gerner-Smidt, 2007).
In response to this persistent threat, bacteriophages—viruses that infect and lyse bacteria—are emerging as viable, targeted alternatives to traditional sanitation protocols. Unlike broad-spectrum antimicrobials, bacteriophages can selectively target specific pathogens without disrupting beneficial microbial flora, a crucial aspect in the production of fermented or probiotic-enriched foods (García et al., 2008).
Recent advances, such as the study by Byun et al. (2022), have shed light on the efficacy of phage cocktails in not only reducing the bacterial load but also in modulating biofilm structure and virulence gene expression. This article explores the mechanisms, efficacy, and implications of phage cocktail applications in food safety, focusing on their role in eradicating Listeria monocytogenes biofilms.
Mechanisms of Biofilm Formation by Listeria monocytogenes
Biofilm formation by L. monocytogenes is a complex, multi-stage process influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, pH, and nutrient availability. Initial adhesion to surfaces is facilitated by surface proteins and flagellar motility (Vatanyoopaisarn et al., 2000). Once attached, cells begin secreting EPS, composed of polysaccharides, proteins, and extracellular DNA, leading to the formation of a three-dimensional structure. This biofilm matures over time and exhibits a gradient of oxygen, nutrients, and metabolic activity across its layers, creating a heterogeneous and fortified bacterial community (Bridier et al., 2015).
Biofilms not only enhance survival under stressful conditions but also contribute to the pathogen’s resistance to disinfectants and its persistence in food processing environments (Carpentier & Cerf, 2011). Even low initial levels of contamination can lead to widespread colonization if not properly managed. This underscores the need for novel and robust approaches, such as phage-based biocontrol strategies.
Phage Cocktails: A Tailored Approach to Biofilm Eradication
The use of bacteriophage cocktails—combinations of phages with diverse host specificities—offers a multifaceted approach to microbial control. These mixtures can broaden the host range, reduce the likelihood of resistance development, and ensure synergistic lytic activity (Hagens & Loessner, 2010). In the study by Byun et al. (2022), a cocktail of three Listeria-specific phages (LMPC01, LMPC02, LMPC03) was evaluated for its ability to eradicate biofilms formed on common food contact surfaces at varying temperatures (4°C, 15°C, and 30°C), reflecting realistic conditions in food processing environments.
The cocktail demonstrated notable eradication capacity, particularly against young (24-hour) biofilms. When applied at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 100, reductions of more than 2 log CFU/cm² were observed for young biofilms. In mature (3-day-old) biofilms, reductions were more modest—about 1 log CFU/cm²—highlighting the critical influence of biofilm maturity on treatment efficacy (Soni & Nannapaneni, 2010).
Temperature did not significantly affect the overall performance of the phage cocktail, which is particularly encouraging for applications in cold-chain environments where traditional disinfectants are less effective (Guenther et al., 2009). Stainless steel, polyethylene, and polypropylene—all commonly used in food processing facilities—supported similar levels of biofilm reduction, indicating that the cocktail retained efficacy across a range of material surfaces.
Molecular Responses and Biofilm Structural Changes
Beyond quantitative reductions in bacterial counts, the study also explored the molecular and structural impacts of phage treatment on biofilms. Notably, phage application altered the expression of several virulence-associated genes. Genes associated with motility (flaA, motB) were upregulated, possibly due to disruption of biofilm integrity prompting bacteria to seek new surfaces for colonization. Conversely, genes such as hlyA, prfA, and actA, which are essential for pathogenesis, were downregulated or remained unchanged, suggesting a potential attenuation of virulence post-treatment (Byun et al., 2022).
Microscopy techniques, including confocal laser scanning microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, revealed a disrupted biofilm architecture post-treatment. The EPS matrix appeared degraded, and the structural cohesion of the biofilm was visibly weakened (Gutiérrez et al., 2016). Interestingly, while the bulk of the biofilm was diminished, an increase in microcolonies at the substratum was noted, implying that while surface biomass was removed, some bacterial clusters remained protected or reaggregated.
These findings underscore the need for integrated strategies that pair phage cocktails with other interventions—such as enzymatic treatments or surfactants—to completely disrupt residual biofilm layers and prevent regrowth (Briers et al., 2014).
Limitations and Considerations for Practical Application
While the efficacy of phage cocktails is promising, several challenges must be addressed before widespread industrial adoption. The specificity of phages, while beneficial for targeting pathogens, also limits their applicability across multiple contaminants unless cocktails are carefully formulated. Phages must also be stable under various environmental conditions, and their interaction with food matrices, processing surfaces, and cleaning agents needs comprehensive evaluation (García et al., 2008).
Additionally, surviving bacterial populations post-treatment may develop resistance mechanisms, such as CRISPR-Cas systems or receptor mutations. However, phage cocktails inherently reduce the risk of resistance development compared to monophage therapies (Labrie et al., 2010). Ongoing surveillance and adaptation of phage compositions will be crucial to maintain long-term efficacy.
Importantly, regulatory approval remains a critical step. In the United States, several phage products have been designated as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for use in food. Expanding this regulatory framework globally and harmonizing safety assessments will be essential for scaling up phage-based interventions (Hagens & Loessner, 2014).
Future Directions and Industrial Relevance
The integration of phage cocktails into existing food safety protocols offers a flexible and targeted tool to combat Listeria contamination. Their application could range from routine surface sanitation in processing plants to direct treatment of food products. Additionally, phages could be incorporated into packaging materials, creating active surfaces that prevent microbial colonization during storage and distribution (Mahony et al., 2011).
Further research is needed to optimize delivery methods, such as spraying, dipping, or electrostatic application, and to evaluate compatibility with common food preservation techniques like modified atmosphere packaging or high-pressure processing.
Moreover, the development of biosensors coupled with phage treatments may enable real-time monitoring and targeted disinfection, enhancing traceability and precision in contamination control (Bastin et al., 2020).
Conclusion
The study by Byun et al. (2022) adds to a growing body of evidence supporting the use of bacteriophage cocktails as a viable solution for controlling Listeria monocytogenes in food production environments. The ability to significantly reduce both young and mature biofilms, modulate virulence gene expression, and compromise biofilm integrity presents an opportunity for transformative improvements in food hygiene practices.
Nevertheless, the presence of residual microcolonies post-treatment and the variability in phage-host interactions necessitate continued refinement and innovation in formulation and application strategies. Phages are not a standalone solution but a potent component in a multi-hurdle approach to food safety. With sustained research, regulatory progress, and industrial engagement, phage-based biocontrol strategies could soon become a standard in the fight against persistent foodborne pathogens.
References :
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Bastin, J., et al. (2020). Biosensors and phage applications in food safety. Trends in Biotechnology, 38(10), 1167–1181.
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Briers, Y., et al. (2014). The impact of bacteriophage resistance on food safety. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 26, 30–38.
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Bridier, A., et al. (2015). Biofilm-associated persistence of food-borne pathogens. Food Microbiology, 45, 167–178.
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Byun, K.-E., et al. (2022). Effects of Listeria monocytogenes-specific phage cocktail on biofilm eradication and virulence gene expression. Food Control, 135, 108832.
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Carpentier, B., & Cerf, O. (2011). Review – Persistence of Listeria monocytogenes in food industry equipment and premises. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 145(1), 1–8.
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Colagiorgi, A., et al. (2017). Listeria monocytogenes biofilms in the food industry. Journal of Food Science, 82(3), 632–638.
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Ferreira, V., et al. (2014). Listeria monocytogenes persistence in food-associated environments. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 40(4), 293–309.
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Flemming, H.C., & Wingender, J. (2010). The biofilm matrix. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 8, 623–633.
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García, P., et al. (2008). Bacteriophages and their application in food safety. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 47(6), 479–485.
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Guenther, S., et al. (2009). Bacteriophage application on ready-to-eat meat products. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 136(3), 264–269.
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Gutiérrez, D., et al. (2016). Biofilm disruption by phage-derived proteins. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 1456.
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Hagens, S., & Loessner, M.J. (2010). Bacteriophage for biocontrol of foodborne pathogens: Calculations and considerations. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 11(1), 58–68.
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Labrie, S.J., et al. (2010). Bacteriophage resistance mechanisms. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 8(5), 317–327.
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Mahony, J., et al. (2011). Phage-derived antimicrobials: The future of food biocontrol? Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 22(2), 157–163.
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Soni, K.A., & Nannapaneni, R. (2010). Removal of Listeria monocytogenes biofilms with bacteriophage P100. Food Microbiology, 27(6), 788–792.
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Swaminathan, B., & Gerner-Smidt, P. (2007). The epidemiology of human listeriosis. Microbes and Infection, 9(10), 1236–1243.
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Vatanyoopaisarn, S., et al. (2000). A flagellar gene is essential for Listeria monocytogenes biofilm formation. Journal of Bacteriology, 182(6), 1503–1506.
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